Change management simulation Essay

As the rapid development of modern economy and the increasingly fierce market competition, the demand of how to manage organization change is increasing. Especially for leaders in both large and small companies, the ability of dealing with change is so significant. In many case, the main reason for company bankruptcy is that leaders fail to cope with organization environment change properly. The demise of many fortune 500 companies in the 1980s and 1990s suggests that the leaders of these companies were ineffective in responding to changes in the business environment; they were unable to overcome rigidities in their firms until it was too late. (Beer, M. & N. Nohria. 2000) In order to improve my learning about managing organization change, I did change management simulation four days ago. Then I am going to talk about the detail of my stimulation. In this simulation, I was the CEO of Spectrum Sunglass Company. For this company, the future is bright due to the growing sunglass market. However, from many professional articles I read, I learned that sustainable development is significant for business, our company should offer some new sunglass products to customers who concern about Spectrum’s environmental impact. Moreover, new products can also differentiate our products from competitors’ and provide us more sales opportunities. But unfortunately, some of my colleagues doesn’t agree with my points, the CFO of my company thinks green raw materials may be so expensive that will influence the profit margins of Spectrum. Then my  mission is to persuade Spectrum’s managers to adopt my proposal. PROCESS RECORDING Week 0 – Week 2 Firstly, I conducted private interviews, I interview Michelle Barth, the executive assistant; Nancy Kerr, the director of product innovation and Yao Li, the director of process innovation. For my assistant, I think I should discuss with her first if I have a proposal. And the other two people are in innovation department, it’s easier for them to accept my opinion than others. After that, I told a ‘success’ story to the three same people to convince them deeply and hope them help me persuade other colleagues. Successful diversity need strong commitment from top management. (Beer, M., R. A. Eisenstat, & B. Spector, 1990) Week 3 to Week 5 In the third week, I issued an email notice to the whole company to tell them my opinion and obtain initial feedback from them. I think it’s important to let them understand my opinion and persuade them to support my opinion. Then I hold town hall meetings to talk about my opinion face to face, to know my colleague’s opinion, after that week, walk the talk was followed. Week 7 – Week 9 In the seventh week, I got the consultant’s support, at this time, the people who was interested in my opinion was greatly increased. From the seventeenth week to the ninety week, I provide both external skill-building and internal skill-building to some people in our organization, the purpose is to let them know well about the skill that my proposal needs and make them believe the advantage of my proposal, after these two levers I used, some people began to adopt my proposal. I think these two levers are effective. Week 13 In the thirtieth week, I announced goals and deadlines of Spectrum. I told my company my determination to change, to produce new products. After that, five people began to try my opinion. Week 23 Ten weeks later, I revised reward system, I hope I can use a special way to let them know the significance of changing. After that, I repeated to use the former effective levers to persuade my colleagues. Week 64 – Week 65 In the sixty four week, I posted progress reports of my company, to show the development of the new product, two more people adopted my proposal. At this time, I have already achieved most people’s adoption, in order to convince more people, I decided to continue my work. I also conducted pilot project the following week, I want to see the marketing condition of the new sunglass product, to find its drawbacks and relative developing ways. Week 74 – Week 75 In the seventy four week, I privately confront resister Louise Orysh to ask his opinion about new products and why she doesn’t adopt it, to know the weakness of the new product and how to reform. Then I restructured organization the following week. Week 91 – Week 93 During the ninety one to ninety three weeks, I provided internal skill-building and external building again, and then, my initiative achieved all the managers’ adoption. CHANGING MANAGEMENT ASSESSMENT Now I will assess my work. As a change agent, I have 20 adopters of sustainability initiative in the management team at Spectrum, I persuaded all the managers adopt my proposal successfully. I have succeed in bringing about a significant organization change and creating a bright future for both Spectrum and the environment. So, I think I am an effective change agent. But I also have some deficiencies on my changing management practices. Although I attained 20 adaptors, I spend 93 weeks to get this result, it’s really a long time. The change efficiency ratio is only 0.22. I have to say my work is effective but not efficient, I still need to shorten working time to improve change efficiency. The flexibility and speed is also important in changing management. (Kanter, R. M., B. Stein & T. D. Jick. 1992.) From managing organizational change, I learned that the need for knowledge about how to manage organization change efficiently and effectively is continually rising. If there was a code that could unlock our understanding how change might best be changed, it hadn’t yet be broken. (Beer, M. & N. Nohria. 2000) But break the code may be not the best way to  manage change. The core of organization change is that change what is invalid and remain what is effective. A successful organization know how to overcome the antibody of refusing innovation, seize appropriate opportunities and avoid risks. Furthermore, the central challenge is not strategy, not systems, not culture. These elements and many others can be very important, but the core problem without question is behavior. (Kotter, J. & D. Cohen. 2002.) So changing behavior is the core of changing organization management. Revitalization is one kind of organization change, it involves enhancing the abilities of and contributions made by, managers, workers, and the organization sa a whole to cope with an increasingly competitive environment. (Beer, M. 1990) In summary, I still have some deficiency during this change management simulation. For next time I am going to lead change, when I catch up with a changing opinion, I will notice all the company managers about it, to seek for their advisements. The core of organization changing is human’s behavior, if they agree with my initiative, it’s easy to change their behaviors. I think I should give every manager an equal chance to learn about my proposal and state their own opinion, this way is more acceptable for the managers. So I will hold town meeting first. Moreover, I would like to take some measures to persuade managers adopt my proposal, such as clarify organizational values and conduct private interviews. Finally, I will provide internal skill-building and external skill-building to the rest managers who still doesn’t agree with me, and I can also privately confront resisters to ask the reason he disagree with me. I think through improving what I listed above, I will enhance the efficiency of changing management and achieve most adaptors in shortest time. Reference Beer, M. 1990. The Critical Path to Corporate Renewal. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Beer, M., R. A. Eisenstat, and B. Spector. 1990. Why change programs don’t produce change. Harvard Business Review (November–December): 2-11. Beer, M., and N. Nohria. 2000. Breaking the Code of Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Kotter, J., and D. Cohen. 2002. The Heart of Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Kanter, R. M., B. Stein, and T. D. Jick. 1992. The Challenge of Organizational Change: How Companies Experience It and Leaders Guide It. New York: Free Press.

“Crow Lake” and “Students” by Tom Wayman Essay

In the two tests â€Å"Crow Lake† and â€Å"Students† by Tom Wayman both show the students and their teachers, but the teachers have not the same ways to teach them. In the two tests there are examples of person vs. person conflict as well as person vs. society conflict. In â€Å"students† and â€Å"Crow Lake† both speakers experience person vs. person conflict in their lives. In the story â€Å"Crow Lake† the narrator is in conflict with himself as well as his teacher in his life. In the test the narrator say, â€Å"My job—assistant professor, invertebrate ecology—has a number of components: carrying out research, analyzing and writing up my findings, writing up my findings, writing papers for publication, giving papers at conferences, supervising graduate students, teaching undergraduates, plus a ridiculous amount of administration.† There is also person vs. person conflict in the poem,† The freshman class first printout s showed birthdatehs so recent.† In the first example, the narrator Mary Lawson is in conflict with his teacher because his teacher teaches him, but their age has many years, even though they have many questions for this, but his teacher’s lesson did not any so boring, it’s so interesting about his teacher’s lessons. He liked his teacher’s lesson. In the second example, the narrator is in the conflict with his teacher, this text also between the teacher and students. As we can see, from these two texts both speakers experience person vs. person conflict in their lives. There is also person vs. society conflict in both â€Å"Crow Lake† and â€Å"Students†. For example in â€Å"Crow Lake† it says, â€Å"Teaching I don’t enjoy at all.† As well in â€Å"Students† it says, â€Å"Wayman observed many clung to the vaccination theory of education, he remembered: once you have had a subject you are immune and never have to consider it again.† The speaker in â€Å"Crow Lake† is the student don’t like his teacher’s teaching way. He thought it was so boring. In the second text â€Å"Students† the speaker is liked his teacher because his teacher has interesting way to teach students. As we can see, both tests reveal the conflict that the speaker undergo when dealing with independence in their new lives through this they both experience person vs. society conflict as they come to grips with the change. In both texts â€Å"Crow Lake† and â€Å"Students† speakers use their teachers to compare, one  teacher’s lesson is so interesting, the other teacher’s lesson is so boring, although their teachers ages would older than them but their class had difference way, and make students had different feeling to listen the lessons. As we can see from these two example, a difficult situation can into a person victory if you continually believe in yourself.

Trip to Las Vegas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Trip to Las Vegas - Essay Example The context of the trip to Las Vegas is contingent upon the fact that each of the cast-members that go on the trip goes expecting different results. The male gaze is evident from the very first moments in Vegas as certain members of the male cast begin expressing interest in the allures that Las Vegas has to offer in terms of strippers and adult entertainment. Likewise, this has the causation of creating a rift of jealousy to emerge as a moral panic develops within the minds of the female members of the cast; one that expects that the men have only one desire – to sleep with these strippers. Stereotypes are also represented in the fact that homosexuals are presented according to the norms of Hollywood and the expectation of the viewing audience. These stereotypes correlate to the way in which a cultivation of media’s effect helps to steer the way in which the population comes to integrate with these issues and represent them within their own lives. The plot resolution c omes after each one of the cast members arrives in Las Vegas intent on doing their own thing and quickly separates into small groups or individually. However, as these plans go awry and different results come to those that had such high expectations, the group reassembles and engages with whatever further action will be taken as a solitary group. The production of this episode provides for all the expected elements and does not take away from the overall plot or storyline that has been exhibited thus far.

Iconography of power Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Iconography of power - Case Study Example Ancient art uses hierarchy of scale to underpin images of power. It can be defined as specific manipulation with the sizes of objects and space in order to stress the most important ones in a composition. For instance, in the Standard of Ur people of high social status are significantly bigger than their servants. The same applies to Naram-Sin's depiction because it is bigger than any other object in the composition. Important figures are often depicted in conceptual poses which add special meaning to an artwork. In the Naram-Sin victory stele, the king stands above all his followers to present his power over them. The heads of the followers are turned to Naram-Sin to show their respect. In the Standard of Ur, all kings sit while their slaves stand. Sitting is a privilege as it stresses people's high social status compared to those who stand close to them. Narrative composition is a composition which "tells a story" by placing objects in their relation to one another. For instance, W arka vase is a good example of a narrative composition; it shows the relations between people, divinities, animals, water and plants. All objects have the same proportions; connections between them create the story which explains many details about the culture that created the vase. Another good example of narrative composition is the Battle of Till Tuba; this stone relief depicts a battle scene where all characters are depicted in action. Unlike hieratic composition, where relations between people are rendered.

E-commerce, Distance Selling Regulations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

E-commerce, Distance Selling Regulations - Essay Example This exclusion has been implemented by the Distance Selling Regulation 5 (1) (f).3.Auctions are not however excluded from the scope of the E-commerce Directive 2000/31/EC. 4. It seems therefore, that for purposes of the Sale of Goods Act 1979, an internet auction may be regarded as an 'auction', so that the consumer protection provisions apply to business sellers in internet auctions.5 The effect of this definition is that sellers of goods have to comply with the implied terms in sections 12 (title), 13 (sale by description), 14 (implied terms about quality and fitness) and 15 (sale by sample). According to Section 14(2) of the Sale of Goods Act 1979 " Where the seller sells goods in the course of a business, there is an implied term that the goods supplied under the contract are of satisfactory quality." Many issues arise in this context for example whether the provider of an auction platform is liable for the goods sold on his platform if they are not of satisfactory quality.What if the consumer is unable to locate the seller of the goodsHere Regulation 19 of the Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations 2002 would apply if the online provider merely hosted the website and would be immune to criminal liability where had no actual knowledge that the goods being sold on his website were not of satisfactory quality. The online provider would also be immune against civil liability where the auction provider does not have actual knowledge of the unlawful activities or information . So for example an auction provider would not be liable in damages for a goods which were defective unless he had actual or constructive knowledge of this problem.However the position would change if the Auction service provider has received sufficiently precise notice about the defective goods and does n ot stop advertising them.6 Also where a business seller engages in unfair commercial practices on an auction platform towards consumer sellers, Regulation 19 would not stop the Office of Fair Trading from taking enforcement action against the provider of the auction platform.The auction provider will also be subject to the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 and the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999. Consumer to Consumer Transactions Last but not the least Section 14 does not apply to consumer to consumer sales although the advent of online bidding has increased the complications caused by such transactions. For example the EBay system has blurred the difference between sellers and buyers with its simplified selling arrangement. ________________________________________________________________ Critically consider the application of the Distance Selling Regulations in the context of contracts made using e-mail or through a web-page. This question requires the discussion of the UK Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Regulations which came into force on 31 October 2000 and implemented

Competitive Advantage Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Competitive Advantage - Case Study Example In such a scenario the firm will be able to sustain its competitive advantage. This becomes a great advantage to the company since it enjoys a long - term advantage free from imitations. No matter the magnitude of competition a good sustainable competitive advantage prevails. (Collis and Hussey, 2003) 1) The market positions - Under this we have the company's structural assets, financial, reputation assets, and lastly technological assets. All these assets can greatly determine the performance of a given company. followed. These guidelines help in the development of the firm and highly determine the competitive advantage of the firm compared to other firms. If a company takes the right path of the development track then it is likely to have a sustainable competitive advantage over the other companies and vice versa. Rolls Royce has various sources of competitive advantage some of which are similar to those practiced by Tesco while others are different. The company has introduced a reliable business approach that has assured consistency and wealthy business. (Gilbert, 1999) The company is applying merging and acquisition as a strategy for example the acquisitions of Cooper Energy Services, Allison Engine Company Vickers among others have helped the firm in creating new business opportunities for its marine, civil energy and defence industries. This has also widened its range of products thus creating new markets for the products. The company has a management team that takes care of all the customers requirements, attends to them and ensures that all customers are satisfied. All the company's planned goals are well delivered on the line of recruitment, the company has filled the senior management positions with new human force thus injecting fresh ideas in the company, two third of these senior management team are selected from within the company, they therefore know how the company runs while a third are recruited outside the company who bring new notions and suggestions on improving the company's business activities. (Gilbert, 1999) The company has got strategy of increasing the sales volume. New and modern engines have been delivered with boosted ripeness in the bass of installation. Overhaul and repair activities have also received a tremendous growth following the company's increased technological levels attached to the production of quality products. The company has realized increased assortments on its services. This had made its customer base to increase a thing that gives it competitive advantage over the other firms. Investing in new civil engines and the capability of powering a broader range of aircrafts has given it some competitive advan

Business Ethics-What Should Barner do Term Paper

Business Ethics-What Should Barner do - Term Paper Example The following case circumstance therefore is more of a challenge to the policies that they have and the values that they purport to uphold. The use of child labor is an unacceptable part of any contemporary society or conceivable reality. While this may be the general and ideal case, there are certain countries that still use children to make profits. The case presents Barner with a significant opportunity for the company. IKEA should clearly come out and accept this fact and the complexities that it possesses. Even in situation that child labor may be camouflaged as household chores; they should be in a position to distinguish the two and strengthen their policies (Jeruissen, 135). First of all, it gives her an opportunity to review the policies that they have in place as to trade practices. Secondly, it presents her with an opportunity to start validating the type of suppliers that IKEA trades with. Thirdly, it provides her with the chance to ensure that the suppliers that she deal s with conform to the policies that IKEA holds as strong values and finally, it presents her with the chance to show that IKEA is more than an organization that is out to make profit by any means necessary. All these instances are ethically based and not commercially focused. If they were commercially focused, the interest of the child would be the least of concerns because the suppliers would argue that the children are paid for their services. Next Move One major step that ought to be taken before any other moves is to first apologize for the ignorance about the issue in which IKEA has found itself in. this apology should bring out the point that the company intends to take the necessary corrective measures to clear the mess. It should also include how this corrective move is going to be applied so as to ensure that such mistakes are not commonplace in the future. In this way, the brand value that IKEA has developed over the past as the case shows, will not only increase but will also sell out. Most people appreciate the fact that they are dealing with company’s that appreciate social values. It is however essential that Barner finds the best way to understand the situation in which this supplier has put them. It would be wrong to take harsh measures on a company that was otherwise following genuine policies. This is because global outsourcing also has its share of cultural, social and regulatory differences that have to be dealt with. In dealing with such issues, the effect should in no way interfere with the supply and distribution chain. IKEA as a company has already built a customer niche that has grown loyal. If actions that Marianne Barner takes interfere with their demand for products, it would not only interfere with the sales but customer confidence too. Therefore, any decision on any of the proposals that IKEA has received should also not be unethical (Griseri, & Seppala, 227). It should be noted that the production of carpets in India is sp read over a geographical area that is very large. From the vast countryside to several smaller units; at times to even individual looms within the villages in these farms. This would therefore make it impossible for IKEA or any other organization that deals in a similar supply chain to effectively guarantee that there is no use of child labor at any point in this wide and long chain. Therefore, the idea that IKEA should sign up to an industry-wide response to the growing concerns

American Flag Desecration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

American Flag Desecration - Essay Example George Washington said "We take the stars from Heaven, the red from our mother country, separating it by white stripes, thus showing we are separated from her, and the white stripes shall go down to posterity representing Liberty" ("History of the Flag," 2007). Other nations often take the red as the blood of those who risked their life for the nation's freedom, and white as purity for the ideal freedom they fought for. The Congress in 1977 was credited for speaking of the flag's symbols as "the star is a symbol for heaven and a divine goal to which man has aspired from time immemorial; and the stripe is symbolic of the rays light emanating from the sun"("The United States Flag," 2006.) This is how much Americans value their symbols of nationalities. However, through freedom of speech and expression towards presidential governance, some use the flag to extend their disagreement; such as burning, ripping or any indecent display that could attract the administration's attention to listen to their stipulations (Foppian, 2007). The massive public burning of flag during the Vietnam conflict on 1968 alarmed the Congress that was forced to come up with the first federal flag protection of general applicability. However, due to the Supreme Court's refusal to review the statute, it took a couple of decades that only the lower courts were the ones that upheld its constitutionality (Luckley, 2003) According to John Luckley's (2003) study of Flag Protection, up until now, the Congress finds difficulty in fully enforcing the federal law of flag desecration. To fully constitute the statute is to suppress the freedom of speech, but it may appear also as if the constitution is tolerating the desecration of the American flag (Luckley 2003:4). The 108th Congress Report of the House of Representatives (Library of Congress, 2007) cites that flag desecration is protected under the First Amendment as expressive conduct. The only stated law from the same source is that "The Congress shall have power to prohibit the physical desecration of the flag of the United States." The ineffectivity of this law is due to the conflict of freedom of speech which the Supreme Court favors more and is the inclined stance taken mainly by the State (Luckley, 2003). Federal Law of Flag Desecration about Burning The United States Flag Code outlines flag etiquette. The Federal law states that "when American flag has worn out due to regular use and no longer fit for display, it should be destroyed by burning in a dignified manner" ("Cracking the Flag-Burning," 2005). The specified term allows the burning of the flag in order to discharge the worn-out flag in respectful conduct. Its implication is that any manner and intent of the flag burning act aside from the mentioned tolerable act is punishable. As accounted for by the Library of Congress, House Joint Resolution 4 gives Congress authority to legislate the federal law even though not precisely recognized by the State (Luckley, 2003). The United States Veterans of Affairs stated that "there is no penalty for failure to comply with the Flag Code, and that it is not widely enforced." This insinuates that to emphasize or enforce the flag code of conduct would conflict with the First Amendment's right of freedom of sp

Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 14

Assignment - Essay Example This allows each department to focus on one task, allowing the company to work faster. Some of the key departments in a company may be the finance department or the sales department. 3) Chain of command is how management delegates authority to individuals throughout a workplace (Chain of Command). Instead of one manager delegating tasks, department managers can give instructions as they see fit. A normal chain of command would have the president at the top, followed by the vice-president, and so on. 4) Span of control is the number of employees that a manager has under his or her control at one time. Department managers would have a span of control over the employees who they are responsible for. 5) Centralization is the process where key decisions are taken only by top management. On the other hand, decentralization places trust in employees lower down the food chain and allows them to make decisions for

Terry Fox Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Terry Fox - Essay Example Terrance Stanley Fox was one of the people, whose life was ruined by cancer, thus he knew pretty well what he struggled for. A young man lost his leg in the struggle with the dangerous disease, when he was only nineteen (Nelson, 2003). Since that time he became a cancer activist. In 1980 Terry started his cross-Canada run that was also interrupted by cancer recidivation. After his death Terry Fox Run was created. Running with the artificial leg, Terry became a national hero. The main goal of his Marathon of Hope was to collect money and spend it for cancer research in order to find the way to treat the illness. His plan was to take one dollar from each Canadian citizen and the sum would reach 24 million dollars. He ran every day and by the time he reached Ontario, he was already famous. His run ended near Thunder Bay, when the disease made him stop. A hero died nine months later. Terry Fox was inspired by Dick Traum, the first man who took part in racing without a leg. After reading about Dick’s achievements Terry told his parents that he also was going to take part in marathon. However, he did not tell his parents about his real intentions. Terry was irritated by the fact that cancer research is not financed properly. He decided to help find the way to treat the disease and almost realized his plan. ... There were faces with the brave smiles, and the ones who had given up smiling. There were feelings of hopeful denial, and the feelings of despair. My quest would not be a selfish one. I could not leave knowing these faces and feelings would still exist, even though I would be set free from mine. Somewhere the hurting must stop....and I was determined to take myself to the limit for this cause†(cited in Cosentino, 1990). Notwithstanding that Terry was disabled, he believed in his own forces and did not want people to be sorry of him. Unfortunately, not all of his friends and relatives supported him, his mother did not want him to run. Then she was sorry of that, she recollects his words: "He said, 'I thought you'd be one of the first persons to believe in me.' And I wasn't. I was the first person who let him down" (cited in MacQueen, 2010). Terry was not sure that his running will help cure cancer, but he still hoped so. When he applied to Canadian Cancer Society asking for fund ing his project, he wrote: â€Å"we need your help. The people in cancer clinics all over the world need people who believe in miracles. I am not a dreamer, and I am not saying that this will initiate any kind of definitive answer or cure to cancer. I believe in miracles. I have to† (cited in Cosentino, 1990). Though the mission of Terry Fox remained unfinished, others continue reaching his goal. We should hope that one day cancer will be successfully treated and many lives will be saved. People like Terry Fox are heroes and they should be remembered for what they did for others. Fox ran without leg in order to save the lives and health of other people. He did not listen to those, who did not believe in him, and did everything to reach his goal. His self-assurance and astonishing

Project Proposal Essay Example for Free

Project Proposal Essay Background and Motivation What is the setting and history behind this project? Customer Relationship Management concerns the relationship between the organization and its customers. Customers are the lifeblood of any organization be it a global corporation with thousands of employees and a multi-billion turnover, or a sole trader with a handful of regular customers. Customer Relationship Management is the same in principle for these two examples it is the scope of CRM which can vary drastically. CRM, or Customer Relationship Management, is a way for businesses to find potential customers. While the first iterations of CRM were used in the 1980s, it wasnt until the 2000s that it really began to shine. CRM software helps businesses identify and categorize existing customers. This allows them to see the specific demographics their products appeal to, in turn allowing them to market their products more effectively. What is the problem to be addressed? Many organizations are considering introducing CRM systems or are in the process of doing so. The main concern of these organizations is their ability to make the necessary changes at the level of organizational strategy that the introduction of the CRM system requires. Organizations are also concerned about damaging their existing customer care system. Their fears are based on past failures in their own or in other organizations. What are some current approaches to this problem? 1. The users dont use the CRM system My personal view is that most people do not come to work to fight the system. If users are rejecting the CRM system then we need to try to understand the reasons. In most cases this can be traced to a lack of management support for CRM. If users feel that their conscientious updating of the CRM system is not used then they will stop using it. Examples of managers refusing to use the CRM system, requesting reports in Word or Excel format, and enjoying a successful CRM implementation are nonexistent. The simple fact is that leaders need to lead – that means that everyone from the very top down must use the CRM system. 2. The users want to use the CRM system, but the technology is failing them Another point of belief; CRM software developers do not set out to ship bad software. So even if you have selected a software platform that we don’t sell, it is unlikely that the CRM issue will be bugged software. The most common reasons for technology failing are tied to speed or ease of access. If your users cannot access the CRM system whenever or wherever they want then they will drift away. 3. The original driving force for the CRM project has moved on It is often said that a new broom sweeps cleanest. All too often changes in management herald changes in the CRM system. Users who were previously happily using the CRM system, struggle to adopt changes. Users who were struggling with the system, legitimize their behavior with reference to changes that may, or may not be coming. 4. The CRM system does not deliver all of the functions required This might be the result of changes in the business, or changes in the management or reporting requirements. Typically this is first visible as a potential Business Intelligence (BI) requirement. The need is to integrate all of the systems that surround the CRM system. From quote creation, to web store integration, systems proliferate to surround the CRM system. Requirements, not anticipated in the initial CRM project create additional customer data silos. Left unchecked these will ultimately undermine the â€Å"single view of the customer† CRM seeks to deliver. Why is this problem worth solving or worth solving better? Customer relationship management (CRM) is a widely implemented model for managing a company’s interactions with customers, clients, and sales prospects. It involves using technology to organize, automate, and synchronize business processes—principally sales activities, but also those for marketing, customer service, and technical support.[1] The overall goals are to find, attract, and win new clients, service and retain those the company already has, entice former clients to return, and reduce the costs of marketing and client service.[2] Customer relationship management describes a company-wide business strategy including customer-interface departments as well as other departments.[3] Measuring and valuing customer relationships is critical to implementing this strategy. Benefits of the Project/Product * One of the major benefits of having a CRM is that it improves the quality of service. The CRM collects all information of the clients then analyzes the data and help you in decision- making. With the help of Customer Relationship Management, you will assured that your system is running safe and secure. Another benefit of having a CRM software is that it can help you save a lot of money. Of course, purchasing a software might be expensive but compared on hiring, training and paying employees, it will save you a lot. * Having a Customer Relationship Management software needs to have careful planning. Remember that in this system, the relationship between your company and your clients is at stake. You have to plan out everything. It is also important that you consider its usability. You have to determine the benefits it will bring to your company and its impact in your business as well as your employees. * Since all information provided by the customers were collected by the CRM, it is important to keep them secure. The company as well as the vendors should ensure the quality of the system that it is secure enough to protect confidential information. Scope and Limitations of the Project The scope limitation option on workflows in MSCRM is a great feature that unfortunately has half baked functionality. Particularly when dealing with large organizations with multiple Business Units, it’s compelling to try and limit scope to the Business Unit level. This works fine until you realize the limitations. Seeing as how workflows can only be owned by people, you MUST assign each workflow to a user in the business unit you’d like scope limited to. As soon as you attempt this, you’ll need to deactive the workflow, assign to the appropriate user, have that user log into the system, and re-activate the workflow. Needless to say, this is not a feasible maintenance scenario for organizations rolling out to dozen(s) of business units.

MTEF Reform in Bangladesh Analysis

MTEF Reform in Bangladesh Analysis Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background This dissertation studies the MTEF (Medium Term Expenditure Framework) reform in Bangladesh. The MTEF was introduced in 4 ministries including Ministry of Education from 2005-06, named as MTBF (Medium Term Budgetary Framework). In the following year it included Ministry of Primary and Mass Education and Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. All other ministries will be brought under this framework in near future. The focus of this study is to explore the effect of introducing the MTEF in education and health budgets, explain the difference between the MTEF and traditional budgetary system in the formulation and execution of budget, analyze the effectiveness and efficiency of budgetary spending due to adopting the MTEF in the education and health sectors considering the three outcomes (maintaining fiscal discipline, promoting allocative Efficiency and enhancing operational efficiency) of public expenditure management (PEM) and finally to comment on whether improvements were achieved or not due to adopting the MTEF. This chapter outlines the relevancy of the study, the research questions to be answered in the subsequent chapters, methodology and analytical framework, limitations of the study and finally the presentation structure. 1.2 Rationale of the Study The main objective of formulating a budget under the MTEF is to link the budgetary allocations with governments policies, priorities. This is for ensuring efficient utilisation of limited public resources, which will enhance pro-poor growth and poverty reduction. One of the ‘policy priority triangles set out in countrys Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP, 2005) is human development. So, Education and health sectors have been attached to top priority on investment by the Government. 1 According to MTBF (2005-06, p-01), ‘The Medium Term Budgetary Framework (MTBF) is a new budgeting approach generally known as the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF). Here, no basic difference between MTEF and MTBF has been stated. So, the term ‘MTEF will be used ubiquitously in this dissertation except quoting the references where relevant. These two sectors account for almost 20% of the total government expenditure each year in Bangladesh. The MTEF has been implemented in these two sectors since 2006 and many of the government policy objectives are linked with them. It is necessary to review the performance of the MTEF so that the output could be infused into ongoing works and corrective actions can be taken to planned activities accordingly. Thus, it seeks to investigate the impact of the MTEF on budgetary system of these two sectors. 1.3 Research Questions For this paper, the research questions are: 1. To what extent MTEF led to changesa in the formulation and execution of education and health budgets? 2. Has MTEF improved the effectivenessb and efficiencyc of budgetary expenditure on education and health? a. Mainly three types of changes- institutional, process (procedure) and technical (technological). b. Effectiveness is about how far does the activity (here MTEF) achieve its objective- and the objective itself is greater allocative efficiency. c. Efficiency here means at what cost was that result achieved, i.e. how many additional resources were used up in adopting MTEF (Here it means operational efficiency). 1.4 Broad Methodological Approach The analysis is purely desk- based. Secondary information sourced from review of literatures on the MTEF of different countries and other related articles of OECD, IMF, World Bank. UNICEF, PEFA, ADB, UNDP comprising as assessment and analysis of available documents on the MTEF and related processes. To answer the research questions data of national budget from 2001t o 2010, documents on the MTEF from 2006 to 2010, monthly fiscal report from 2004 to 2008- Finance Division, Ministry of Finance (MoF), Bangladesh Economic Review 2003-2008, IRBD by CPD (Centre for Policy Dialogue) from 2004- 2010, Public Expenditure Review on health- 2007, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Sector wise budgets from Ministry of Education, Ministry of Primary and Mass Education, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare are used. Data from national budgets, BER, MTBF and PER played the key role to answer the research questions. Information was collected from interviewing few relevant staff of the MoF and consulti ng published documents and databases available in the Internet. The analysis is both qualitative and quantitative depending on the availability of the relevant data. 1.4.1 Analytical Framework 1) To answer the first question regarding changes due to adopting MTEF in Bangladesh, three elements will be analyzed institutional change, procedural change and technical change and this analysis will try to differentiate the qualitative changes took place due to adopting MTEF over the traditional budgeting system in relation to those three elements. 2) The MTEF budgets of education and health will be assessed taking into account the three basic elements of PEM (Public Expenditure Management) maintaining fiscal discipline, promoting allocative efficiency and enhancing operational efficiency (Schick, A, 1998) to get the answer of the second question concerning improvement in effectiveness and efficiency of budgetary spending after MTEF. Fiscal discipline, allocative efficiency and operational efficiency are interdependent (DFID, 2001). Allen Schick (1998, p. 2) argued that the lack of fiscal discipline leads to improper resource allocation and operates inefficiency. So, fiscal discipline promotes allocative and operational efficiency. MTEF sought to strengthen those three outcomes. Therefore, the effectiveness and efficiency of budgetary spending is improved when those three basic elements are achieved. The following criteria/ principles will be analysed to reveal the experiences of attaining those three basic elements Source: The above criteria in the table are generated on the basis of the literature of Schick, A (1998), World Bank (1998), DFID guidelines (2001) 1.4.1.1 Criteria setting The aim is to find out some criteria that influences the three objectives of PEM as well as matches with the ‘MTEF objectives of Bangladesh (discussed in chapter- 3..) so that the impact of the MTEF can be assessed. The analytical framework is adapted and it is mainly based on the literature of ‘Schick, A (1998), A Contemporary Approach to Public Expenditure Management, ‘World Bank (1998), Public Expenditure Management Handbook, DFID guidelines (2001) and some other empirical evidences (discussed in chapter- 2). Some other relevant criteria are not examined mainly due to data non- availability of appropriate data. For example, improvement in accountability and transparency relates to operational efficiency is not analysed due to data limitation and relevant information unavailability. A simple cross- section data is presented in tabular form where it is relevant in addressing the research questions. 1.6 Limitations The MTEF is now at its earlier stage in Bangladesh and no formal review or comprehensive assessment has been made on this new budgetary process. Sufficient information is not available and current and reliable data are also unobtainable. So, there is much reliance on government budgetary documents that cannot always be testified by evidences from other sources. 1.7 Presentation Structure Chapter 2 provides literature review on theoretical concept of MTEF, budgetary reforms followed both in developed and developing countries and assessments of the impact of the MTEF in those countries using the analytical framework specified for answering question two. Chapter 3 illustrates MTEF reform in Bangladesh and analysis of the traditional budgetary process and MTEF in view of the changes took place due to adopting MTEF to get the answer of question 1. Chapter 4 focuses on the assessment of impact of MTEF on education budget to get the answer to question-2 Chapter 5 focuses on the assessment of impact of MTEF on health budget to get the answer to question-2 Chapter 6 presents the conclusion where all the research questions are summarized. Chapter 2: Literature Review This chapter aims to explore various criteria/ principles that will be used to judge the performance of the MTEF in line with the three basic indicators of the public expenditure management (PEM). With this end in view, it provides literature review on theoretical concept of the MTEF, the theoretical explanation regarding the relationship between the MTEF and the public expenditure management (PEM). It also examines the empirical studies on the MTEF of different countries to reveal the different criteria/ conditions that were set to assess the role of the MTEF in promoting the efficiency and effectiveness of public expenditure. Finally it brings together some criteria that will be used to develop the analytical framework to assess the impact of the MTEF on education and health budget (the title of the dissertation) in Bangladesh. 2.1 The Theoretical Background 2.1.1 Concept of the MTEF The MTEF (Medium Term Expenditure Framework) is defined as an approach ‘designed specially to link planning, which has a medium term outlook, with the annual budget, and, as a consequence, to link budgetary expenditure more systematically with socially desired outcomes, (ADB, 2002, p-1). On the whole, MTEF integrated policy, planning and budgeting and allows expenditure to be ‘driven by policy priorities and disciplined by budget realities (World Bank, 1998). So, MTEF is a multiyear rolling expenditure under which a realistic projection of revenue receipts and expenditure is prepared over a three to five year period and spending priorities are set with reference to the Governments policy objectives and thus it provides a clear foundation for the annual budget. Under the MTEF, over a three year period, first year estimate is considered as budget, two outer years estimates as indicative figures. In the following year, the MTEF rolls forward and a new forward estimate for an other year is added. After necessary adjustment, the second year forward estimate is considered as budget as it becomes first year for the next MTEF. Figure 2.1: Rolling Principle of the MTEF (Source: ODI, 2002, p- 5) In many countries, the MTEF is implemented at two key levels, at the central government level which is referred to as the ‘top- down approach and at the spending agencies level, referred to as the ‘bottom- up approach (World Bank, 1998, p-40). In the ‘top- down approach, Ministry of Finance identified the ‘resource envelops (which is referred to as the indicative expenditure ceiling) and allocate those to the line ministries in view of their relative need. In the ‘bottom- up approach, line ministries or sectoral agencies formulates and estimates the actual and projected costs of the spending programmes within the spending limit for the medium term by examining the sectoral objectives and activities (Houerou and Taliercio, 2002, p-2). Table 2.1 Seven Stages of the MTEF Source: Adapted;[PEM Handbook (World Bank, 1998a: 47-51) cited in N.Oyugi. L, (2008, p-3, 4) and Houerou and Taliercio, (2002, p-3)] Annexure- 2 2.2 A General Overview of the Empirical Literature Many developed countries like UK, Australia, New Zealand, Austria, Sweden, Germany, USA are practising multi- year budgeting. The MTEF of UK maintains a firm consistency in controlling public expenditure having ‘focused on outcomes and efficient service delivery (HM Treasury, 2007). World Bank, DFID and other Aid agencies influenced many developing and transitional countries to initiate series of reforms (Wyane, 2005). The MTEF is introduced in more than 25 countries in Asia, Africa (e.g., Benin, Cameroon, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Malawi, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Namibia, Kenya, Zambia) Latin America and Eastern Europe. In Asia, MTEF has already been introduced in Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Almost all the developing countries have 3 years MTEFs except Mozambique (6 years) and South Africa (4 years) (Houerou and Taliercio, 2002). Most of the countries integrated development and non- development expenditure in the MTEF except Guinea and Rwanda (only recurrent budget). In Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, Uganda, civil society representatives participate in Sector Expenditure Frameworks (SEFs) preparing process (Houerou and Taliercio, 2002). Suriyaarachchi (2004) argued that Nepal has improved in development budget formulation and execution after intro ducing MTEF in Fiscal Year 2002-03. Assessments on the MTEF in many African countries are carried out considering the organizational change and procedural change rather than assessing the progress achieved through implementing the MTEF (Bird, A, 2003; Holmes and Evans, 2003; Jennes. G, 2003; Carlier. K, 2003; Short. J, 2003) 2.3 The MTEF and the public expenditure management (PEM) ADB (2001) suggested that ‘Public expenditure management (PEM) is the latest approach that emphasizes on achieving the desired policy outcomes through public sector budgeting. PEM considered expenditure as an instrument to produce optimal output whereas conventional budgetary process sets focus on spending as an input. PEM emphasizes on three main outcomes in budgetary system. The objectives of PEM are to maintain fiscal discipline, to promote allocative efficiency and to enhance operational efficiency (World Bank, 1998a cited in DFID, 2001, p-8). Allen Schick (1998, p-2) describes three basic elements of PEM as follows: 1. Aggregate fiscal discipline , which usually means that the public spending limit should not exceed the total revenue (spending in accordance with the affordability) and should be ‘sustainable over the medium-term and beyond (ibid, p-2). 2. Allocative efficiency , which refers to the condition that public spending, should be prudent. ‘Expenditure should be based on government priorities and it should be directed to the most beneficial programmes and activities that ultimately increase the effectiveness of the budgetary spending. It means that the allocation is better targeted shifting from ‘lesser to higher priorities and from less to more effective programs (ibid-2). 3. Operational efficiency means getting the best value of public money. Quality of the public services should be reasonable and it should be given at the lowest possible cost (ADB, 2001, p-1). According to Fjeldstad et al. (2004 p.2) cited in N.Oyugi. L, (2008, p- 2), The objectives of MTEF are : to maintain ‘aggregate fiscal discipline to promote ‘resource allocation to strategic priorities (allocative efficiency) to enhance ‘efficient and effective use of resources (operational efficiency) It suggests that there is a close connection between MTEF and PEM objectives. 2.3.1The MTEF and improvement in effectiveness and efficiency of budgetary expenditure ADB suggested that ‘the MTEF is one mechanism through which a PEM system can be operationalzed (2001- issue- 2, p-4). So, the improvement in effectiveness and efficiency of budgetary expenditure depends on to what extent the MTEF is sought to strengthen the PEM objectives. Fiscal discipline, allocative efficiency and operational efficiency are ‘interdependent (DFID, 2001). Allen Schick (1998, p. 2) argued that the lack of fiscal discipline leads to improper resource allocation and operational inefficiency. So, fiscal discipline can promote both allocative and operational efficiency. Fiscal discipline is maintained when implementation of budget ensures that actual expenditure does not exceed the spending limit and even when the increase in spending (% as a share of GDP) is consistent with the increase in revenue each year (Schick, A, 1998, p. 12, 67). So, two criteria- conformity with the spending limit and consistency in the trend of sectoral expenditure influence fiscal discipline. Allocative efficiency means the ability of the government to distribute resources considering the effectiveness of public programmes in accordance with its strategic objectives or policy planning. It is the capacity to reallocate resources from old to new priorities and from less to more effective programmes. Delegation of major allocative responsibility to sectoral ministries also promotes allocative efficiency (ibid, p. 17, 90). So, four criteria- change in sectoral allocation, strategic resource allocationlinked to policy planning, spending in priority areas/ programmes anddevolution of allocative responsibilities to line ministries influence allocative efficiency. MTEF offers greater predictability of fund since it establishes ‘baseline budgets for the upcoming years (while one year budget cannot) and thus improves operational efficiency (ADB, 2001- issue- 2, p-4). World Bank (1998) argues that predictability of funds (assurance to spending agencies as to when and where the resources will be available) is one of the major factors that influence operational efficiency (p- 28). Operational efficiency put emphasis on output and outcomes rather than input (Schick, A, 1998, p. 21). So, two criteria- greater predictability of public funds and progress in achieving output targets influence operational efficiency. 2.3.2 Evidence from Cross-country Studies This is to explore what criteria/ characteristics are set out by different countries to assess the impact of MTEF with respect to three levels of PEM outcomes. However, most of the studies are found to use one or more of the following criteria. Reducing fiscal deficit Since the adoption of the MTEF, Malawi reduced its fiscal deficit from 15% of GDP to 5% in the 1998/ 1999 budgetary- year and a further reduction to 4% in 1999/ 2000. So, it achieved some progress in reducing fiscal deficit (Anipe et al., 1999, p. 15). Adequate information availability In Cambodia, the MTEF was introduced in two ministries (education and health) and while preparing the sectoral expenditure for 2003-2005, health ministry had inadequate information regarding user fees and other payments, which in turn prevented from making a realistic estimation (Dom et al., 2003, p. 30). Above two criteria are concerned with aggregate fiscal discipline. Strategic resource allocation linked to policy, planning In case of Ghana, the MTEF was adopted in 1999; the resources were allocated in line with government development policy documents, e.g. ‘Ghana Vision 2020 (Anipa et al., 1999, p-21). The MTEF in Uganda achieved a considerable success in integrating the PEAP (‘Poverty Eradication Action Plan) within the Budgetary process and expenditure planning is carried out considering PEAP at the central and local government levels (Bird A, 2003). Change in sectoral allocation In Uganda, actual spending increased from 19.8% of total expenditure to 26.9% in 1998/99 (Bevan and Palomba, 2000, p. 18). In Benin, budgetary allocations had increased significantly to the ‘priority sector since 1998. Recurrent budget for education was 27.4% of the total expenditure in 1998 and it increased to 39.5% in 2001 and capital budget was 4.5% of the total expenditure in 1998 and that increased enormously to 40.7%. Allocations towards the health budget have increased from 1.4 percent of GDP in 1998 to 2.3 percent of GDP in 2001 (Carlier K, 2003, p. 23-24). Greater responsibility to line ministries The MTEF in Ghana promoted allocative efficiency as line ministries enjoying ‘greater responsibility for allocating resources to priority activities which ensures effective and efficient use of limited resources (Anipa et al., 1999, p- 7). Improvement in budgetary classification The MTEF in Malawi promotes allocative efficiency as it improved in budgetary classification by adopting activity- based budgeting that reviews the on- going programmes and creates sub- programmes to specify the activities (ibid, p. 12-25). From the above analysis it is evident that three criteria- strategic resource allocation linked to policy planning, change in sectoral allocation, improvement in budgetary classification are relevant to allocative efficiency and greater responsibility to line ministries is concerned with both allocative and operational efficiency (discussed in section 2.1.3). Fund predictability In Malawi, the allocation for health sector was 20.7% of the total development budget for the 1996/1997 fiscal year, but the actual release was only 3.6% of the development expenditure (Oxford Policy Management, 2000, p. 4). Reducing the deviation between budget and actual spending In case of Tanzania, from 1995 to 1998, the average BDI (Budget Deviation Index) was equal to 33% before introducing the MTEF and after the MTEF since 1999, it was reduced to 25% (Houerou and Taliercio, 2002, p. 21). Improvement in accountability and transparency In Namibia, MTEF has improved transparency as the framework explains inputs required for all programmes and expected outcomes. It also increased accountability because public has the access to the information regarding government priorities set in the medium term framework (N Oyugi L, 2008, p-12). The above two criteria are relevant to operational efficiency as discussed earlier. 2.4 Findings The country assessments of the MTEF indicate that all types of criteria/ conditions were not used by any single country to assess the impact of the MTEF. From the above analysis, the following key criteria/ principles can be brought together which appear to be important to examine the MTEF outcomes at three levels- fiscal discipline, allocative and operational efficiency. In the next chapter, the changes due to adopting the MTEF in the education and health budget will be examined. Asian development bank institute, 2005 http://www.adbi.org/files/2005.09.05.cpp.budget.classification.pdf Chapter 3: Changes due to the MTEF in Bangladesh This chapter addresses the first research question of Chapter- 1 which refers to the changes took place because of the MTEF introduced in the education and health budget. For this, it focuses on the budgetary reforms in Bangladesh. Experiences with the introduction of the MTEF are discussed and finally the changes due to adopting the MTEF (the traditional versus the MTEF) have been analysed. 3.1 Why the MTEF in Bangladesh Before the MTEF, budgets were prepared by making arbitrary incremental changes to the preceding years allocation. No strategic planning was present in budgetary process, non- development and development budgets were prepared separately and emphasis was laid on input rather than output (BCAS-2006/09, p. 53). Therefore, to enhance the credibility of the budget, to face the strategies set out in the PRSP with the macroeconomic framework and to ‘create a more disciplined, dynamic, efficient and modern public financial management system (MTBF-05/06, p. i), the MTEF was introduced. 3.2 Budgetary reforms and the MTEF in Bangladesh Bangladesh is a densely populated developing country which has a less public spending as a share of GDP (Socio- economic indicators are shown in Appendix- 1 ). For the effective and efficient use of scant resources, important reforms have been carried out in public financial management since 1990s. According to World Bank, ‘Bangladesh re-emerged as a democracy, successfully restarted reforms on critical fronts while ensuring sound macroeconomic and fiscal management (BCAS, 2006/09, p-9). A committee on Reforms in budgeting and Expenditure Control (CORBEC) was formed in March 1990 and this committee identified a number of problems including budgeting procedure, budget classification, budget presentation, separate non- development (recurrent) and development (investment) budgets preparation, emphasis laid on the inputs rather than outputs, etc. It was also difficult to identify the flow of funds as non- development and development budgets used separate classification systems and that was not computerized. To implement the recommendation of CORBEC, RIBEC (Reform in Budgeting and Expenditure Control) was formed with the financial suppo rt from the DFID (Department for International Development). A detailed operational unit wise and economic code wise classification chart was prepared and published, financial rules and reporting systems were upgraded and large number of Government officials were trained through the RIBEC from Ph MTEF Reform in Bangladesh Analysis MTEF Reform in Bangladesh Analysis Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background This dissertation studies the MTEF (Medium Term Expenditure Framework) reform in Bangladesh. The MTEF was introduced in 4 ministries including Ministry of Education from 2005-06, named as MTBF (Medium Term Budgetary Framework). In the following year it included Ministry of Primary and Mass Education and Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. All other ministries will be brought under this framework in near future. The focus of this study is to explore the effect of introducing the MTEF in education and health budgets, explain the difference between the MTEF and traditional budgetary system in the formulation and execution of budget, analyze the effectiveness and efficiency of budgetary spending due to adopting the MTEF in the education and health sectors considering the three outcomes (maintaining fiscal discipline, promoting allocative Efficiency and enhancing operational efficiency) of public expenditure management (PEM) and finally to comment on whether improvements were achieved or not due to adopting the MTEF. This chapter outlines the relevancy of the study, the research questions to be answered in the subsequent chapters, methodology and analytical framework, limitations of the study and finally the presentation structure. 1.2 Rationale of the Study The main objective of formulating a budget under the MTEF is to link the budgetary allocations with governments policies, priorities. This is for ensuring efficient utilisation of limited public resources, which will enhance pro-poor growth and poverty reduction. One of the ‘policy priority triangles set out in countrys Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP, 2005) is human development. So, Education and health sectors have been attached to top priority on investment by the Government. 1 According to MTBF (2005-06, p-01), ‘The Medium Term Budgetary Framework (MTBF) is a new budgeting approach generally known as the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF). Here, no basic difference between MTEF and MTBF has been stated. So, the term ‘MTEF will be used ubiquitously in this dissertation except quoting the references where relevant. These two sectors account for almost 20% of the total government expenditure each year in Bangladesh. The MTEF has been implemented in these two sectors since 2006 and many of the government policy objectives are linked with them. It is necessary to review the performance of the MTEF so that the output could be infused into ongoing works and corrective actions can be taken to planned activities accordingly. Thus, it seeks to investigate the impact of the MTEF on budgetary system of these two sectors. 1.3 Research Questions For this paper, the research questions are: 1. To what extent MTEF led to changesa in the formulation and execution of education and health budgets? 2. Has MTEF improved the effectivenessb and efficiencyc of budgetary expenditure on education and health? a. Mainly three types of changes- institutional, process (procedure) and technical (technological). b. Effectiveness is about how far does the activity (here MTEF) achieve its objective- and the objective itself is greater allocative efficiency. c. Efficiency here means at what cost was that result achieved, i.e. how many additional resources were used up in adopting MTEF (Here it means operational efficiency). 1.4 Broad Methodological Approach The analysis is purely desk- based. Secondary information sourced from review of literatures on the MTEF of different countries and other related articles of OECD, IMF, World Bank. UNICEF, PEFA, ADB, UNDP comprising as assessment and analysis of available documents on the MTEF and related processes. To answer the research questions data of national budget from 2001t o 2010, documents on the MTEF from 2006 to 2010, monthly fiscal report from 2004 to 2008- Finance Division, Ministry of Finance (MoF), Bangladesh Economic Review 2003-2008, IRBD by CPD (Centre for Policy Dialogue) from 2004- 2010, Public Expenditure Review on health- 2007, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Sector wise budgets from Ministry of Education, Ministry of Primary and Mass Education, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare are used. Data from national budgets, BER, MTBF and PER played the key role to answer the research questions. Information was collected from interviewing few relevant staff of the MoF and consulti ng published documents and databases available in the Internet. The analysis is both qualitative and quantitative depending on the availability of the relevant data. 1.4.1 Analytical Framework 1) To answer the first question regarding changes due to adopting MTEF in Bangladesh, three elements will be analyzed institutional change, procedural change and technical change and this analysis will try to differentiate the qualitative changes took place due to adopting MTEF over the traditional budgeting system in relation to those three elements. 2) The MTEF budgets of education and health will be assessed taking into account the three basic elements of PEM (Public Expenditure Management) maintaining fiscal discipline, promoting allocative efficiency and enhancing operational efficiency (Schick, A, 1998) to get the answer of the second question concerning improvement in effectiveness and efficiency of budgetary spending after MTEF. Fiscal discipline, allocative efficiency and operational efficiency are interdependent (DFID, 2001). Allen Schick (1998, p. 2) argued that the lack of fiscal discipline leads to improper resource allocation and operates inefficiency. So, fiscal discipline promotes allocative and operational efficiency. MTEF sought to strengthen those three outcomes. Therefore, the effectiveness and efficiency of budgetary spending is improved when those three basic elements are achieved. The following criteria/ principles will be analysed to reveal the experiences of attaining those three basic elements Source: The above criteria in the table are generated on the basis of the literature of Schick, A (1998), World Bank (1998), DFID guidelines (2001) 1.4.1.1 Criteria setting The aim is to find out some criteria that influences the three objectives of PEM as well as matches with the ‘MTEF objectives of Bangladesh (discussed in chapter- 3..) so that the impact of the MTEF can be assessed. The analytical framework is adapted and it is mainly based on the literature of ‘Schick, A (1998), A Contemporary Approach to Public Expenditure Management, ‘World Bank (1998), Public Expenditure Management Handbook, DFID guidelines (2001) and some other empirical evidences (discussed in chapter- 2). Some other relevant criteria are not examined mainly due to data non- availability of appropriate data. For example, improvement in accountability and transparency relates to operational efficiency is not analysed due to data limitation and relevant information unavailability. A simple cross- section data is presented in tabular form where it is relevant in addressing the research questions. 1.6 Limitations The MTEF is now at its earlier stage in Bangladesh and no formal review or comprehensive assessment has been made on this new budgetary process. Sufficient information is not available and current and reliable data are also unobtainable. So, there is much reliance on government budgetary documents that cannot always be testified by evidences from other sources. 1.7 Presentation Structure Chapter 2 provides literature review on theoretical concept of MTEF, budgetary reforms followed both in developed and developing countries and assessments of the impact of the MTEF in those countries using the analytical framework specified for answering question two. Chapter 3 illustrates MTEF reform in Bangladesh and analysis of the traditional budgetary process and MTEF in view of the changes took place due to adopting MTEF to get the answer of question 1. Chapter 4 focuses on the assessment of impact of MTEF on education budget to get the answer to question-2 Chapter 5 focuses on the assessment of impact of MTEF on health budget to get the answer to question-2 Chapter 6 presents the conclusion where all the research questions are summarized. Chapter 2: Literature Review This chapter aims to explore various criteria/ principles that will be used to judge the performance of the MTEF in line with the three basic indicators of the public expenditure management (PEM). With this end in view, it provides literature review on theoretical concept of the MTEF, the theoretical explanation regarding the relationship between the MTEF and the public expenditure management (PEM). It also examines the empirical studies on the MTEF of different countries to reveal the different criteria/ conditions that were set to assess the role of the MTEF in promoting the efficiency and effectiveness of public expenditure. Finally it brings together some criteria that will be used to develop the analytical framework to assess the impact of the MTEF on education and health budget (the title of the dissertation) in Bangladesh. 2.1 The Theoretical Background 2.1.1 Concept of the MTEF The MTEF (Medium Term Expenditure Framework) is defined as an approach ‘designed specially to link planning, which has a medium term outlook, with the annual budget, and, as a consequence, to link budgetary expenditure more systematically with socially desired outcomes, (ADB, 2002, p-1). On the whole, MTEF integrated policy, planning and budgeting and allows expenditure to be ‘driven by policy priorities and disciplined by budget realities (World Bank, 1998). So, MTEF is a multiyear rolling expenditure under which a realistic projection of revenue receipts and expenditure is prepared over a three to five year period and spending priorities are set with reference to the Governments policy objectives and thus it provides a clear foundation for the annual budget. Under the MTEF, over a three year period, first year estimate is considered as budget, two outer years estimates as indicative figures. In the following year, the MTEF rolls forward and a new forward estimate for an other year is added. After necessary adjustment, the second year forward estimate is considered as budget as it becomes first year for the next MTEF. Figure 2.1: Rolling Principle of the MTEF (Source: ODI, 2002, p- 5) In many countries, the MTEF is implemented at two key levels, at the central government level which is referred to as the ‘top- down approach and at the spending agencies level, referred to as the ‘bottom- up approach (World Bank, 1998, p-40). In the ‘top- down approach, Ministry of Finance identified the ‘resource envelops (which is referred to as the indicative expenditure ceiling) and allocate those to the line ministries in view of their relative need. In the ‘bottom- up approach, line ministries or sectoral agencies formulates and estimates the actual and projected costs of the spending programmes within the spending limit for the medium term by examining the sectoral objectives and activities (Houerou and Taliercio, 2002, p-2). Table 2.1 Seven Stages of the MTEF Source: Adapted;[PEM Handbook (World Bank, 1998a: 47-51) cited in N.Oyugi. L, (2008, p-3, 4) and Houerou and Taliercio, (2002, p-3)] Annexure- 2 2.2 A General Overview of the Empirical Literature Many developed countries like UK, Australia, New Zealand, Austria, Sweden, Germany, USA are practising multi- year budgeting. The MTEF of UK maintains a firm consistency in controlling public expenditure having ‘focused on outcomes and efficient service delivery (HM Treasury, 2007). World Bank, DFID and other Aid agencies influenced many developing and transitional countries to initiate series of reforms (Wyane, 2005). The MTEF is introduced in more than 25 countries in Asia, Africa (e.g., Benin, Cameroon, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Malawi, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Namibia, Kenya, Zambia) Latin America and Eastern Europe. In Asia, MTEF has already been introduced in Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Almost all the developing countries have 3 years MTEFs except Mozambique (6 years) and South Africa (4 years) (Houerou and Taliercio, 2002). Most of the countries integrated development and non- development expenditure in the MTEF except Guinea and Rwanda (only recurrent budget). In Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, Uganda, civil society representatives participate in Sector Expenditure Frameworks (SEFs) preparing process (Houerou and Taliercio, 2002). Suriyaarachchi (2004) argued that Nepal has improved in development budget formulation and execution after intro ducing MTEF in Fiscal Year 2002-03. Assessments on the MTEF in many African countries are carried out considering the organizational change and procedural change rather than assessing the progress achieved through implementing the MTEF (Bird, A, 2003; Holmes and Evans, 2003; Jennes. G, 2003; Carlier. K, 2003; Short. J, 2003) 2.3 The MTEF and the public expenditure management (PEM) ADB (2001) suggested that ‘Public expenditure management (PEM) is the latest approach that emphasizes on achieving the desired policy outcomes through public sector budgeting. PEM considered expenditure as an instrument to produce optimal output whereas conventional budgetary process sets focus on spending as an input. PEM emphasizes on three main outcomes in budgetary system. The objectives of PEM are to maintain fiscal discipline, to promote allocative efficiency and to enhance operational efficiency (World Bank, 1998a cited in DFID, 2001, p-8). Allen Schick (1998, p-2) describes three basic elements of PEM as follows: 1. Aggregate fiscal discipline , which usually means that the public spending limit should not exceed the total revenue (spending in accordance with the affordability) and should be ‘sustainable over the medium-term and beyond (ibid, p-2). 2. Allocative efficiency , which refers to the condition that public spending, should be prudent. ‘Expenditure should be based on government priorities and it should be directed to the most beneficial programmes and activities that ultimately increase the effectiveness of the budgetary spending. It means that the allocation is better targeted shifting from ‘lesser to higher priorities and from less to more effective programs (ibid-2). 3. Operational efficiency means getting the best value of public money. Quality of the public services should be reasonable and it should be given at the lowest possible cost (ADB, 2001, p-1). According to Fjeldstad et al. (2004 p.2) cited in N.Oyugi. L, (2008, p- 2), The objectives of MTEF are : to maintain ‘aggregate fiscal discipline to promote ‘resource allocation to strategic priorities (allocative efficiency) to enhance ‘efficient and effective use of resources (operational efficiency) It suggests that there is a close connection between MTEF and PEM objectives. 2.3.1The MTEF and improvement in effectiveness and efficiency of budgetary expenditure ADB suggested that ‘the MTEF is one mechanism through which a PEM system can be operationalzed (2001- issue- 2, p-4). So, the improvement in effectiveness and efficiency of budgetary expenditure depends on to what extent the MTEF is sought to strengthen the PEM objectives. Fiscal discipline, allocative efficiency and operational efficiency are ‘interdependent (DFID, 2001). Allen Schick (1998, p. 2) argued that the lack of fiscal discipline leads to improper resource allocation and operational inefficiency. So, fiscal discipline can promote both allocative and operational efficiency. Fiscal discipline is maintained when implementation of budget ensures that actual expenditure does not exceed the spending limit and even when the increase in spending (% as a share of GDP) is consistent with the increase in revenue each year (Schick, A, 1998, p. 12, 67). So, two criteria- conformity with the spending limit and consistency in the trend of sectoral expenditure influence fiscal discipline. Allocative efficiency means the ability of the government to distribute resources considering the effectiveness of public programmes in accordance with its strategic objectives or policy planning. It is the capacity to reallocate resources from old to new priorities and from less to more effective programmes. Delegation of major allocative responsibility to sectoral ministries also promotes allocative efficiency (ibid, p. 17, 90). So, four criteria- change in sectoral allocation, strategic resource allocationlinked to policy planning, spending in priority areas/ programmes anddevolution of allocative responsibilities to line ministries influence allocative efficiency. MTEF offers greater predictability of fund since it establishes ‘baseline budgets for the upcoming years (while one year budget cannot) and thus improves operational efficiency (ADB, 2001- issue- 2, p-4). World Bank (1998) argues that predictability of funds (assurance to spending agencies as to when and where the resources will be available) is one of the major factors that influence operational efficiency (p- 28). Operational efficiency put emphasis on output and outcomes rather than input (Schick, A, 1998, p. 21). So, two criteria- greater predictability of public funds and progress in achieving output targets influence operational efficiency. 2.3.2 Evidence from Cross-country Studies This is to explore what criteria/ characteristics are set out by different countries to assess the impact of MTEF with respect to three levels of PEM outcomes. However, most of the studies are found to use one or more of the following criteria. Reducing fiscal deficit Since the adoption of the MTEF, Malawi reduced its fiscal deficit from 15% of GDP to 5% in the 1998/ 1999 budgetary- year and a further reduction to 4% in 1999/ 2000. So, it achieved some progress in reducing fiscal deficit (Anipe et al., 1999, p. 15). Adequate information availability In Cambodia, the MTEF was introduced in two ministries (education and health) and while preparing the sectoral expenditure for 2003-2005, health ministry had inadequate information regarding user fees and other payments, which in turn prevented from making a realistic estimation (Dom et al., 2003, p. 30). Above two criteria are concerned with aggregate fiscal discipline. Strategic resource allocation linked to policy, planning In case of Ghana, the MTEF was adopted in 1999; the resources were allocated in line with government development policy documents, e.g. ‘Ghana Vision 2020 (Anipa et al., 1999, p-21). The MTEF in Uganda achieved a considerable success in integrating the PEAP (‘Poverty Eradication Action Plan) within the Budgetary process and expenditure planning is carried out considering PEAP at the central and local government levels (Bird A, 2003). Change in sectoral allocation In Uganda, actual spending increased from 19.8% of total expenditure to 26.9% in 1998/99 (Bevan and Palomba, 2000, p. 18). In Benin, budgetary allocations had increased significantly to the ‘priority sector since 1998. Recurrent budget for education was 27.4% of the total expenditure in 1998 and it increased to 39.5% in 2001 and capital budget was 4.5% of the total expenditure in 1998 and that increased enormously to 40.7%. Allocations towards the health budget have increased from 1.4 percent of GDP in 1998 to 2.3 percent of GDP in 2001 (Carlier K, 2003, p. 23-24). Greater responsibility to line ministries The MTEF in Ghana promoted allocative efficiency as line ministries enjoying ‘greater responsibility for allocating resources to priority activities which ensures effective and efficient use of limited resources (Anipa et al., 1999, p- 7). Improvement in budgetary classification The MTEF in Malawi promotes allocative efficiency as it improved in budgetary classification by adopting activity- based budgeting that reviews the on- going programmes and creates sub- programmes to specify the activities (ibid, p. 12-25). From the above analysis it is evident that three criteria- strategic resource allocation linked to policy planning, change in sectoral allocation, improvement in budgetary classification are relevant to allocative efficiency and greater responsibility to line ministries is concerned with both allocative and operational efficiency (discussed in section 2.1.3). Fund predictability In Malawi, the allocation for health sector was 20.7% of the total development budget for the 1996/1997 fiscal year, but the actual release was only 3.6% of the development expenditure (Oxford Policy Management, 2000, p. 4). Reducing the deviation between budget and actual spending In case of Tanzania, from 1995 to 1998, the average BDI (Budget Deviation Index) was equal to 33% before introducing the MTEF and after the MTEF since 1999, it was reduced to 25% (Houerou and Taliercio, 2002, p. 21). Improvement in accountability and transparency In Namibia, MTEF has improved transparency as the framework explains inputs required for all programmes and expected outcomes. It also increased accountability because public has the access to the information regarding government priorities set in the medium term framework (N Oyugi L, 2008, p-12). The above two criteria are relevant to operational efficiency as discussed earlier. 2.4 Findings The country assessments of the MTEF indicate that all types of criteria/ conditions were not used by any single country to assess the impact of the MTEF. From the above analysis, the following key criteria/ principles can be brought together which appear to be important to examine the MTEF outcomes at three levels- fiscal discipline, allocative and operational efficiency. In the next chapter, the changes due to adopting the MTEF in the education and health budget will be examined. Asian development bank institute, 2005 http://www.adbi.org/files/2005.09.05.cpp.budget.classification.pdf Chapter 3: Changes due to the MTEF in Bangladesh This chapter addresses the first research question of Chapter- 1 which refers to the changes took place because of the MTEF introduced in the education and health budget. For this, it focuses on the budgetary reforms in Bangladesh. Experiences with the introduction of the MTEF are discussed and finally the changes due to adopting the MTEF (the traditional versus the MTEF) have been analysed. 3.1 Why the MTEF in Bangladesh Before the MTEF, budgets were prepared by making arbitrary incremental changes to the preceding years allocation. No strategic planning was present in budgetary process, non- development and development budgets were prepared separately and emphasis was laid on input rather than output (BCAS-2006/09, p. 53). Therefore, to enhance the credibility of the budget, to face the strategies set out in the PRSP with the macroeconomic framework and to ‘create a more disciplined, dynamic, efficient and modern public financial management system (MTBF-05/06, p. i), the MTEF was introduced. 3.2 Budgetary reforms and the MTEF in Bangladesh Bangladesh is a densely populated developing country which has a less public spending as a share of GDP (Socio- economic indicators are shown in Appendix- 1 ). For the effective and efficient use of scant resources, important reforms have been carried out in public financial management since 1990s. According to World Bank, ‘Bangladesh re-emerged as a democracy, successfully restarted reforms on critical fronts while ensuring sound macroeconomic and fiscal management (BCAS, 2006/09, p-9). A committee on Reforms in budgeting and Expenditure Control (CORBEC) was formed in March 1990 and this committee identified a number of problems including budgeting procedure, budget classification, budget presentation, separate non- development (recurrent) and development (investment) budgets preparation, emphasis laid on the inputs rather than outputs, etc. It was also difficult to identify the flow of funds as non- development and development budgets used separate classification systems and that was not computerized. To implement the recommendation of CORBEC, RIBEC (Reform in Budgeting and Expenditure Control) was formed with the financial suppo rt from the DFID (Department for International Development). A detailed operational unit wise and economic code wise classification chart was prepared and published, financial rules and reporting systems were upgraded and large number of Government officials were trained through the RIBEC from Ph

Overrepresentation Of Ethnic Minorities Essay

Overrepresentation Of Ethnic Minorities Essay The overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in the Criminal Justice System looks like this: in 79.6 of arrests in 2009-10 those who were involved classified their ethnicity as white (Race and the CJS, 2010). In 2010 the rates for indictable offences were higher for white persons at 81% than for ethnic minorities, 74% for black and 77% for Asians (Race and the CJS, 2010). However, statistics show that ethnic minorities are overrepresented at all stages of the Criminal Justice System. In 2009 Black people made up 2.7% of the population aged 10 and above but represented 8.0% of those arrested in England and wales, while Asians made up of 5.6% of the population aged 10 and above and represented 5.6% of those arrested in England and wales (Race and the CJS, 2010). As ethnic minorities they are more likely to be stopped and searched by police, this leads to a greater probability of arrests and in turn may influence the way their cases are dealt with as they progress through the subsequent stages of the criminal justice process. They are less likely to be given unconditional bail, and more likely to be remanded in custody than white offenders. In 2010 a higher percentage of ethnic minorities (Black 27%, Asian 29%, other 42%) were sentenced to immediate custody for indictable offences than whites (23%) (Race and the CJS, 2010). Ethnic minorities are also more likely to receive punitive sentences than white people and are overrepresented in aspects of certain crimes such as robbery, drug offences and -in some areas- firearms offences. Ethnic minorities are also more likely to be the victims of crimes. It was seen in the British crime survey 2010-11 that the risk of being a victim of crime was higher for all ethnic minorities than white groups (Race and the CJS, 2010). Over a period of 5 years the risk of being a victim of crime from the white group had significantly fallen by 8.0% while the decrease in the risk of being a victim of crime from ethnic groups was not stati stically significant. It is apparent that there are also variations in the overrepresentation of different groups within the ethnic minority category and also between gender, patterns and levels of offending also vary significantly (Race and the CJS, 2010). To narrow this down this research, the essay will focus mainly on the overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, even though it is recognised that those of Asian background are only slightly overrepresented in the prison population in comparison to those of black background. It does not mean there is no need to inquire on whether they too suffer discrimination in the Criminal Justice System or not (Gabbidon, 2010). According to the Race Relations Act 1976, segregating against a person based on racial grounds means treating them less favourably than they should be treated; it is therefore illegal to discriminate through delivery of goods, facilities or services to the public based on racial grounds (John, 1987). This, however, does not apply to officials representing the Crown as they are exercising powers to exclude or punish. Judges are therefore immune when acting in judicial capacity; this means the act does not apply to the se ntencing of offenders in the courts (Gabbidon, 2010). There have been disputes to have this taken out of legislation for it is argued that those in law enforcement who have the power to strip an individual of their freedom and liberty should act in respect of racial origins of the defendant (Michael, 1989). This helps to ensure justice as well as confidence of ethnic minorities in the legal system. Ethnic minorities are also seen to be discriminated against by courts; they are much more severely dealt with when it comes to sentences received in courts, more likely to be sent to prison than whites who have committed the same offence (Hood, 1992). To be able to find out whether sentencing is affected by race and if discrimination does exist it would have to be evident that when all relevant legal variables are taken into account, a higher number of ethnic minorities are given a custodial sentence and/or a longer sentence (Marian, 1991). A strategy to address this overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in sentencing is needed to bring together departments and find ways to reduce it. The aim of this research essay is to look at literature and establish whether patterns of sentencing among ethnic minorities differ in a significant way from patterns of sentencing among whites. It will also look at the nature and extent of the variation in sentencing -if any at all- what might cause the variation and any available solution strategies. The research question that will be investigated will then be: Does racial discrimination exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System? It seems almost unjust to answer such a research question without assessing public opinion on the sentencing process and its relation to race as it can be assumed that their opinions are important even though not directly (Hough, 1998). The significance of public opinion can be seen for example in the observation that was made by the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Bingham. He observed that it would not seem right for a judge to ignore any public opinion when in court. Similarly the late and former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher noted the importance of the incorporation of public opinions in the sentencing debate (Hough, 1998). To explore the public opinions on the role of race in the sentencing processes of the Criminal Justice System a questionnaire was distributed to a small sample. The questionnaire helped to explore such a potentially sensitive topic about race and sentencing, especially because the questionnaires were anonymous and completed in private. Key points were identified th at were used in the construction of the questions (see appendix 1 for questionnaire guide) these included available sentencing options for ethnic minorities, imprisonment for different types of offences, sentence leniency and sentencing length. This would shine light on the public opinions and whether or not pressure from these opinions affects the decision making in the sentencing process of the Criminal Justice System and how this decision is influenced by the race of the defendant. LITERATURE REVIEW Since the growth of ethnic minorities in Britain with its peak in the 1990s the interest in their progress has increased. The largest share of ethnic minorities was those who classified themselves as black or Indian (Gabbidon, 2010). The growth of ethnic minorities was not widely accepted and the resistance towards them was shown through racism and violence. Not only were ethnic minorities the victims of these attacks but they were also first to be arrested and sentenced for the same attacks (Gabbidon, 2010). The overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in crime and justice can be seen in early history, for example through the work of Frederick McClintocks crimes of violence (1963), which studies violent crimes and finds that the conviction rate of black people increases by 13% in a span of 10 years (McClintock,1963). This helps to inform the research question as it talks about the history of race and discrimination. It is important to investigate the procedure that occurs when an individual is to be sentenced, when researching the effects of race on the differences in sentencing. This is made clear by Bowling and Phillips (2002), when they note that once a suspect has been charged with an offence at the police station, their case file is sent to the crown prosecution service (CPS) in order that they can make the decision about whether to proceed to court with the case or to terminate the case in which case the defendant does not have to attend court or face criminal charges. Shaun L. Gabbidon draws from this further and claims it is from this that the factors that play a role in such a decision can be determined. According to Gabbidon it is hard to determine that race affects or plays a role in this decision as the race of the defendants is not disclosed (Gabbidon 2010). Showing that race might not be central in this decision. However, even though race might not have an influence at this stage, it is clear to others such as Hood (1992), Mhlanga (1997) and Banks (1999) that race does affect prosecution, sentencing and legal representation. The sentencing process is one of the important stages of the Criminal Justice System, not only is an important decision to be made but this is also how justice is seen as being done (Ashworth, 1983). It is, therefore, important to consider the races of the judges themselves, which in England and Wales are predominantly white. This leads to immediate assumptions that ethnic minorities are then automatically at a disadvantage (Mathews, 2009). Research into this issue may show little bias in race and sentencing, but it is argued that if previous offences and the seriousness of the case are considered, ethnic minorities are most likely to get a harsher sentence (Blumstein, 1982). Ethnic minorities are seen to be very similar, for example when it comes to social economic characteristics and this may be seen as affecting and/or influencing the sentencing decision. This can be seen in a study conducted by Imogen Brown and Roy Hullin (1992). They looked at the decision-making process of over 3,000 defendants, from this they discovered that over 50% of the black defendants were unemployed, this being more than double that of white or Asian defendants was seen as influencing the decision (Brown and Hullin, 1992). The inquiry on the role race has on sentencing is enlarged in the study by Roger Hood (1992). Hood wanted to find out the race effect of sentencing and to do so he looked at 2,884 defendants who appeared in different Crown Courts in the West Midlands. The study was set to identify the variation in sentencing for each ethnic group through multivariate analysis on the basis of 15 variables that were selected. Hoods findings were unsurprising in relation to previous research; he found that the racial difference in sentencing was less than what might have been assumed. He found that only 5% of blacks were more likely to be given a custodial sentence than whites and that 80% of the overrepresentation of black offenders who were in prison were there due to the severity of their offences and not their race. He also found that most ethnic minorities opted the crown court and pleaded not guilty, this however, meant that when found guilty they were more likely to get a harsher sentence (Hood, 1992). It is important however, not to take these findings at face value as hoods study faced a lot of issues both methodologically and theoretically. Representation of this research was also a problem due to the sentencing differences between the courts that were investigated (Hood, 1992). For example Birmingham Crown Court, which had the largest percentage of the whole sample, the chance of a black offender to be given a custodial sentence was one in three; while in Dudley Crown Court the chance was one in two. This means if most of the distribution of cases had been from Dudley Crown Court and not Birmingham Crown Court the results would have been more racially biased (Hood, 1992). The methodological issues resulted mainly from the prediction scale used and its accuracy of only 75 per cent and their risk of custody score which could only include relevant factors and in so doing leaving out important factors such as unemployment (Hood, 1992). Hood himself admitted that he did not aim to provide a general or casual explanation but wants to make sure that the reasons for these differences in treatment between ethnic minorities and whites should remain open to speculation (Spalek, 2008). Although the numbers might be small, Hood did manage to show that discrimination in the crown court exists, both direct (for example through bail decisions, the rate of sentencing and sentence imposed) and indirect (for example through the decision to plead not guilty and social inquiry reports) (Spalek, 2008). It is clear that previous research on race and sentencing tends to focus on the role of the courts and the judges and how they make their decisions. Referencing the work of Hood brings the purpose of this research into context. The research explored public opinions on the role that race plays in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System. Those being researched were approached and informed about the topic of the questionnaire and were prompted to participate (volunteer sampling) this potentially included participants with a variation in gender and age who were interested in and had an opinion about the role of race in the sentencing process of the Criminal Justice System. Research into race and sentencing like those referenced above and others alike bring up concerns about some of the questions left unanswered about the topic. Many of the research findings on race and sentencing have issues -for example methodological and theoretical issues and concerns this results in the difficulty to prove that a relationship between race and the sentencing decision exists (Spalek, 2008). This research will try to contribute to the closure of this gap, by focusing on the attitudes and opinions of the public about their views on the topic. To have a better and deeper understanding of the research findings, the research will be drawing on some theoretical concepts. If discrimination against ethnic minorities does exist, in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, this could be due to prejudices that are difficult to remove (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). A prejudice is seen as an attitude that serves cognitive and emotional functions. Experience and knowledge is one of these functions, it is important for an individual to feel they know what they are doing and understand the world in which they do it in (Anderson and Taylor, 2007), in this case judges will most likely feel that convicting and sentencing ethnic minorities just because they have been treated so in past cases shows their understanding of the world and how things work. Second is the instrumental function which is associated with rewards and punishments (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). An individual is then most likely to follow the attitudes of their preferred groups just so they could be rewarded in the case of judges for example for promotions and higher pay rolls. This type of discrimination can also be explained through Tajfels social identity theory (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). It talks about the importance of a positive self-image to the individual, and how they feel their social identity is enhanced by categorising people into groups, in and out cast groups. On the other hand, the discrimination against ethnic minorities in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System could be an exaggeration or a myth and this could be explained by the simple fact that ethnic minorities commit more serious crimes that are more likely to get convicted and sentenced compared to white offenders (Spalek, 2008). These factors could all play a part: areas and environment in which they grew up in, social and material deprivation, boundaries up the employment ladder and inadequate socialisation, just to name a few (Mathews, 2009). It is, therefore, evident that it is difficult to draw conclusions that race is the main explanation for the higher and harsher sentence rates of ethnic minorities as there are too many variables affecting the same decision. As race and sentencing are widely researched topics, it is important that their definitions are not assumed. In the questionnaires conducted, race was used in terms of being a system in which categories are created for humans based on their ethnic background (spalek, 2008). Ethnic minority will be used in relation to the different national or cultural traditions that a group has in comparison to the other population (spalek, 2008) in this case being whites, and the ethnic minorities will include blacks and Asians and those who classify themselves as other. Sentencing will include all types of convictions, ranging from custodial/prison sentences to community service. These words were used in this way in the analysis to narrow down and avoid any confusion. This made the topic easier to investigate. METHODS PARTCIPIANTS 15 questionnaires where completed for the purpose of this research; the questionnaires were obtained from individuals whose participation was entirely voluntary and they were not offered any compensation. The participants were approached in Coventry town centre and were asked to complete a questionnaire. Due to the nature of the topic the respondents were given the option to take the questionnaire home and complete it in private. They all varied in gender and age; however, no specifics were noted about their age or gender due to limited time and the low significance of the issue. Volunteer sampling was used, a type of non-probability sampling, through this the volunteers self-selected themselves into the questionnaire (Bryman, 2008). This ensured that those who volunteered to complete the questionnaire had a strong interest in the topic. This sampling method was also beneficial as it reveals important aspects and opinions of the population being sampled. Although this sampling method has questionable issues, especially with representation (Bryman, 2008), this was not much of a problem to the research as it was mainly for exploratory purposes. MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES The method used closed-ended questionnaires. This was seen as the better choice at the time of research as these questionnaires would help to get responses from large quantities at a time with no interviewer effects (Seale, 2004). The research question does racial discrimination exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System? Meant that topics to be addressed in the questionnaires would be sensitive and/or embarrassing to some, it was, therefore, easier to be addressed through an anonymous questionnaire (Babbie, 2010). In using questionnaires interviewer variability was avoided and the questionnaires also proved to be more convenient for respondents. The questions were constructed from guided topics (Blaxter, 2010). What was being explored was clear and this resulted in a better understanding of the questions and the questionnaires were then completed at a faster rate (see appendix 2 for questionnaire). After volunteers had shown interest on approach, they were brief ed on the purpose of the research, each volunteer was then informed that they could stop doing the questionnaire at any time and that the questionnaire would remain anonymous and they were reassured that their data would not be used against them, that their information would not be handed to third parties and would only be seen by an examiner. Some of the volunteers completed their questionnaires on the spot and some took them away and posted their responses. A one-week time frame was left for the questionnaires that were taken away; at the end of that week 15 questionnaires were gathered in total. Univariate analysis was used to analyse the questionnaires, this was used because it allowed the analysis of one variable at a time, frequency tables were then used to showcase the data and they were used in relation to all of the different types of variables by providing the number of people and the percentage belonging to each category for the variable being analysed (Bryman, 2008). For research such as this it is important to address some ethical considerations in order to collect good data (OLeary, 2004). In light of this the participants were reassured about the confidentiality of their responses. Participation was voluntary, this meant that informed consent was obtained and so participants understood the research and its i ntentions, and they were not being deceived in any way. FINDINGS AND EXPLANATIONS Results from the analysis of the questionnaires indicated that the public are not satisfied with court systems. The first question on the questionnaire asks respondents about their opinion on the type of job that some criminal justice professional do. Only 23 percent of respondents thought that judges were doing a good job; 48 percent thought that they were doing a fair job and 29 percent thought they were doing a poor job (see appendix 3). Judges received the worst evaluation in comparison to police officers, magistrates and prison officers. Police had the highest percentage of doing a good job at 70 per cent (see appendix 4) and magistrates and prison officers were in the middle with 50 per cent each (see appendix 5 and 6). These findings are supported by the theory of prejudices. According to the theory of prejudice, experience and knowledge are its main functions, it is important for an individual to know what they are doing and understand the world in which they do it in (Anders on and Taylor, 2007). By doubting the work that the judiciary does the public also doubts that the judges know what they are doing and whether or not they understand the world in which they work. Prejudice is hard to remove showing the difficulty in combating the negative opinions of the public. The respondents were then asked about their opinions about the leniency of the sentences that ethnic minorities received for certain crimes (robbery, drug offences and crime offences). Just over half thought that the sentences were too lenient (59 per cent) to some extent and just below half of the respondents (41 per cent) thought that the sentences were lenient enough. In comparison to the previous question it was discovered that about 90 per cent of those who thought judges were doing a poor job also thought that the sentences were too lenient (see appendix 7). This shows that the more judges were seen as being out of touch with society, the more they were seen as doing a poor job, therefore, giving lenient sentences to ethnic minorities. It was then important to establish whether or not the respondents knew about the types of sentences that were available. Respondents were asked to list as many sentencing options as they knew. It was evident that prison was the most widely known, this lack of knowledge of alternative sentences could explain why the public root for harsher sentences or imprisonment. There was limited knowledge of non-custodial sentences. Following prison were community service (70 per cent), fine (65 per cent) and probation (58 per cent). The least popular options included compensation (18 per cent), conditional charge (15 per cent) and electronic tagging (20 per cent) (see appendix 8). It is then clear that although the public are aware of some sentencing penalties, not all of them are known as a result not thought of when the public talk about sentencing. This lack of awareness of the different types of sentencing has significant consequences when trying to determine the role of race in the sentenci ng stages of the Criminal Justice System. The respondents were then questioned about 3 types of crime (robbery, drug and firearm offences). Respondents were asked to estimate that out of every 50 ethnic minorities that were convicted of any of these crimes, how many ended up in prison. Robbery had the highest estimates of individuals ending up in prison (45 out every 50), drug offences were not far off with estimates of 43 of every 50 and drug offences falling behind but not far off with estimates of 40 out of every 50 (see appendix 9). These results were inter-linked, those who estimated high numbers robbery did so too for the remaining categories and those who put slightly lower numbers for robbery also did so for the remaining two categories. The estimates about imprisonment also seemed to be related to the leniency of the sentences the offenders received. For example, the respondents who stated that the sentences were too lenient also put down lower estimates of imprisonment. This shows how unawareness about the sentenci ng practice can be a major source of the disappointment that the public experience about the judiciary. This could be explained by the theory of instrumental function which involves individuals following the attitudes of the groups in which they prefer for rewards rather than punishment (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). So the public, though being ignorant and having no idea about sentencing might still have negative opinions due to the simple fact that this is the view of their preferred group. Through this an individuals self-mage and social identity are seen as being more important (Tajfels social identity theory). REFLEXIVE ACCOUNT OF METHODS The purpose of the methods used was to collect information on public opinions about the process of sentencing and how this is affected by race. The questionnaire was used to collect direct information relating to the opinions of the public about the behaviour of certain people; it also looked at the basic opinions of a group of individuals in relation to the issue in question. The questionnaires were also used to collect information which can then be tracked over time to investigate any new changes (Bryman, 2008). Questionnaires were the choice of method mainly due to the sensitivity of the topic; it made it easy for participants to respond freely to the questions even though they might have felt uncomfortable about the topic (Bryman, 2008). This was because there was no interviewer available and the questions could remain anonymous and could also be completed in private if the respondents wished to do so. During the research the researcher was expected to perform certain duties in order to fulfil their role. Some of these included; taking the responsibility of finding out about what was expected of the research, taking the initiative in identifying any issues and problems, undertaking the recommended reading, producing the written work needed, consulting with tutors about any difficulties that are encountered when undertaking the work, generating ideas, setting realistic deadlines and ensure that the research meets with the required regulations (Babbie, 2010). To ensure credibility of this research, standardised instruments were used because they can be assessed in a direct way. These included objectivity and reliability which are positivist and quantitative constructs (Seale, 2004). Credibility is then achieved through objectivity because with the use of questionnaires the beliefs and values of the researcher could not have affected the results, meaning the findings could not depend on who did the research (Seale, 2004). It is important for researchers to maintain their distance from what they study. Credibility was also achieved through reliability because the questionnaire was close ended and standardised, this means the questionnaire can easily be repeated by different researchers and the chances of measurements being consistent are high. The need for credible research had an effect on the way the research was conducted because to ensure credibility certain guidelines needed to be followed and deviation from these was not permitted. As well as advantages, the method used had limitations and this may have affected the validity of the findings. For example the response rate was low (raising generalizability and representative issues), there was little to no control of who volunteered and completed the questionnaire (can lead to bias). The topic being researched is a complex one, the questionnaire failed to touch upon these complexities of the topic. The responses to the questions were limited and this meant that rich, in-depth and detailed information could not be gathered (Seale, 2004). To avoid these issues in future triangulation can be used, therefore the strengths of one method could make up for the short comings of the other and vice-versa. CONCLUSIONS It is clear that the role of race in certain stages of the Criminal Justice System such as sentencing is very important. From early history its evident that race plays some sort of role in the sentencing of ethnic minorities. The main focus has been on how the race of an individual can increase or decrease their sentence. Through the literature reviewed it is clear that race does influence the role of the sentencing decision making in the Criminal Justice System though not as large as anticipated. It shows that there are far too many variables to accurately study this process and come out with valid and representative results, either way some important variables are left out or irrelevant ones included. The research question: Does racial discrimination exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, is, therefore, answered, however, not with much significance. To take the research question further questionnaires were conducted to assess public opinion on the role of race in the sentencing possesses of the Criminal Justice System. The questionnaires were conducted on a voluntary basis and respondents self-selected themselves to participate. One of the main key findings was the publics dissatisfaction with the court system, it was also significant that those who stressed the poor quality of the execution of work with Criminal Justice professionals also stressed that sentences were too lenient and they were not severe enough, also high estimates of ethnic minority imprisonment were made in relation to specific crimes. Through this, it was concluded after the analysis of 15 questionnaires that most of the respondents had little or no knowledge of alternative types of sentencing and that this had major consequences when it came to the accuracy of their opinions about the role of race on sentencing decisions. The research question was then furth er informed, from the analysis of public opinions it can be argued that racial discrimination does exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, but to some extent. However, the sample was too small to draw any significant conclusions from the findings due to the issues associated with methodology and theory. If the opportunity was to arise, this study would be taken a step further; it would be expanded to include a larger and more representative sample. More respondents would give the opportunity to include a more generalizable sample and therefore result in more reliable and valid results about how race influences the sentencing decisions in the Criminal Justice System.